Reading Roman Coins
Roman coins are more than just pockets of change – they’re miniature time capsules waiting to be unearthed. Each coin, from the hefty gold aureus to the humble bronze sestertius, tells a story about the Roman Empire. But how do you unlock these stories? Here’s your invitation to embark on a journey of discovery.
Join us as we embark on this exciting quest to unlock the secrets hidden within Roman coins. Together, we’ll transform these artifacts from mere objects into captivating narratives, whispering tales of a bygone era.
1. Obverse vs. Reverse:
Roman coins have two distinct sides:
- Obverse: This is the “heads” side, typically featuring the portrait of a ruler (emperor, consul, or deity) or a symbol of the Roman state.
- Reverse: The “tails” side, showcasing imagery that tells a story. This could be a scene of a military victory, a depiction of a deity, or a commemoration of a public building project.
2. Identifying the Figures:
- Obverse: Look for details like laurel wreaths (symbolizing victory), radiate crowns (representing divinity), or distinctive hairstyles that can help identify emperors.
- Reverse: The figures depicted can be deities (Jupiter, Mars, Venus) easily recognized by their attributes (lightning bolt, spear, beauty), or personifications of abstract concepts like Victory (holding a palm branch) or Abundance (overflowing cornucopia).
3. Deciphering the Inscriptions:
Roman coins often feature inscriptions, offering valuable clues:
- Obverse: Look for legends (see Appendix 1) that typically include the ruler’s name and titles (e.g., IMP CAESAR TRAIANVS AVG – Imperator Caesar Trajanus Augustus). Abbreviations are common, so having a reference guide can be helpful (see Appendix 2 & 4).
- Reverse: Inscriptions might mention the issuing authority (S C = Senatus Consultum – decreed by the Senate), the denomination (e.g., S C for Sestertius), or the event being commemorated (e.g., VICTORIA – Victory) (see Appendix 5).
4. Understanding the Imagery:
The imagery on the reverse goes beyond mere decoration:
- Military Victories: Scenes of battles, triumphal arches, or captive figures often celebrate military successes.
- Public Works: Images of newly built aqueducts, temples, or theaters showcase the emperor’s commitment to public infrastructure.
- Religious References: Depictions of deities served as a reminder of Roman gods and the emperor’s connection to the divine.
5. Putting it All Together:
By combining the information gleaned from the obverse and reverse, you can begin to understand the story the coin tells. Imagine a denarius with an emperor’s portrait on the obverse and a scene of a conquered city on the reverse. This likely commemorates a recent military victory by the emperor.
Additional Tips:
- Material: The metal used can also be informative. Gold aurei were reserved for high-value transactions, while bronze coins like the sestertius were used for everyday purchases. A decline in the silver content of the denarius (debasement) might indicate economic hardship.
- Mintmarks: Some coins display mintmarks indicating the location where they were minted (see Appendix 3).
- Dating: While not always explicitly stated, stylistic elements and the ruler depicted can help narrow down the date of a coin.
Remember: Practice makes perfect! The more Roman coins you examine, the easier it will become to decipher their secrets. With a little effort, you’ll be unlocking the stories whispered by these ancient coins in no time!
Appendix 1 – Vocabulary
Delving into the world of Roman coins requires navigating a unique vocabulary. But fear not, intrepid numismatist! This comprehensive guide equips you to understand the key terms associated with these fascinating artifacts:
Coin Parts:
- Obverse (Heads): The “heads” side, typically showcasing a portrait of a ruler, deity, or symbol of the Roman state.
- Reverse (Tails): The “tails” side, featuring imagery depicting a scene, event, or symbol.
- Legend (Inscription): Writing on the coin, offering valuable information about the ruler, event, or denomination.
- Field: The blank area on the obverse or reverse excluding the portrait, scene, and legend.
- Exergue: The area below the scene or inscription on the reverse, sometimes used for additional information like mintmarks.
- Flan: The flat, round piece of metal before it’s struck into a coin.
- Edge: The rim of the coin, which can be plain, serrated (notched), or inscribed.
Coin Materials:
- Aureus: The most prestigious coin, crafted from gold. Used for high-value transactions and imperial gifts.
- Denarius: A high-quality silver coin, the workhorse of the Roman monetary system for centuries.
- Sestertius: A larger bronze coin, becoming increasingly important during the Empire. Used for everyday transactions.
- Dupondius: A mid-range bronze coin, often displaying the denomination (II) and the prow of a galley.
- As: The most basic unit, a small bronze coin used for everyday purchases.
- Semis: Half the value of an as, used for smaller transactions.
- Quadrans: A tiny bronze coin, one-quarter the value of an as, used for the most basic purchases.
- Billon: A debased metal alloy containing some silver, used for some later Roman coins.
Coin Denominations and Values:
- Value Fluctuation: The value of Roman coins could fluctuate over time, particularly due to debasement (reducing the precious metal content).
- Quinarius: A less common silver coin worth half a denarius.
- Antoninianus: Introduced by emperor Caracalla, initially with the same silver content as the denarius, but later significantly debased.
Other Important Terms:
- Mint: The workshop where coins were produced.
- Mintmark: A symbol or abbreviation on the coin indicating the mint location (e.g., ROMA for Rome).
- Die: The metal tool used to strike the design onto the coin flan.
- Die Axis: The imaginary line through the center of the obverse and reverse designs. Misalignment can create collectible errors.
- Patina: The natural toning or discoloration on a coin’s surface over time.
- Numismatics: The study and collection of coins.
- Numismatist: A coin collector or scholar.
Appendix 2 – Common Abbreviations
The Romans, with their love of titles, faced a challenge when it came to tiny coins. To fit the emperor’s many titles onto a limited surface, they heavily abbreviated them. This guide will help you decipher these abbreviations, focusing on those found on the obverse (heads) side of the coin.
Emperors held multiple titles reflecting their power and religious authority. These abbreviations helped to communicate this information efficiently.
| Abbreviation | Title | Meaning | Dating Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| AVG | Augustus | Originally a name bestowed on the first emperor, it became a title for all successors. In the later empire, the senior emperor was “Augustus” while the junior was “Caesar”. | |
| CAESAR | Caesar | Originally a family name, it became a title used by later emperors. In the later empire, the senior emperor was “Augustus” while the junior was “Caesar”. | |
| CEN | Censor | A lifelong position overseeing the Senate’s membership. | |
| COS | Consul | Chief magistrate of the Roman government (two consuls appointed each year). Often followed by a numeral indicating the number of times the emperor held this position (e.g., COS III for 3rd time). Useful for dating coins. | Yes |
| DN | Dominus Noster | Our Lord (used in the later empire). | |
| FIL | Filius | Son of… | |
| GERM, BRIT, etc. | Germanicus, Britannicus, etc. | Conqueror of the Germans, Britons, etc. | |
| IMP | Imperator | Emperor | |
| IVN | Junior | The younger (used with “Caesar” in the later empire for junior emperors). | |
| NOB | Nobilissimus | Noble | |
| OPTIMO PRINCIPI | Optimo Principi | The greatest ruler (an honorary title). | |
| PM | Pontifex Maximus | Highest priest of the Roman religion, a lifelong position. | |
| PP | Pater Patriae | Father of his Country | |
| PIVS, PF | Pius Felix | Dutiful, Patriotic | |
| SC (on Reverse) | Senatus Consultum | Issued by decree of the Senate (usually on bronze coins). | |
| TRP | Tribunicia Potestate | Tribune of the Roman People, a representative of the people. Held for one year, often followed by a numeral indicating the emperor’s current term (e.g., TRP X for 10th year). Very useful for dating coins. | Yes |
| VC | Vir Clarissimus | The most illustrious ruler (an honorary title). |
While this guide focuses on obverse abbreviations, reverse inscriptions can also be informative. For instance, SC (Senatus Consultum) on bronze coins indicates the Senate authorized the minting.
Appendix 3 – Mints
This guide lists some common mint marks found on Roman coins, along with the corresponding locations where the coins were minted. These mint marks were typically used from the 1st c. AD to the 5th c. AD.
| Mint Mark | Location |
|---|---|
| ALE | Alexandria |
| A, ANT | Antioch |
| AQ, AQP, AQS | Aquileia |
| AR, ARL | Arles |
| CON, CONST | Constantia (Arles’s name in 4th century) |
| CON | Constantinople |
| KV, KA, SMK | Cyzicus |
| HA, HTA | Heraclea |
| L, LN, LON, AVG, PLN, PLON | London (called Augustus in 4th century) |
| L, LG, LVG, LVGD | Lyon |
| SMN, SMNA | Nicomedia |
| R, RM, ROM, ROMA | Rome |
| SD, SM | Serdica |
| S, SIS, SISC, SISA, ASIS | Siscia |
| TES | Thessalonika |
| T | Ticinum |
| TR, TRR, ATR, PTR | Trier |
Appendix 4 – Roman Emperors
This table presents, in chronological order, the common names of Roman emperors alongside how their names typically appeared on their coinage. Additional information about reign dates and dynasty is included for context.
| Common Name | Dynasty | Reign Dates | Abbreviation | Full Legend |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Augustus | Julio-Claudian | 27 BC – 14 AD | C CAESAR AVG | CAIUS CAESAR AUGUSTUS |
| Tiberius | Julio-Claudian | 14 AD – 37 AD | TI CAESAR | TIBERIUS CAESAR |
| Caligula | Julio-Claudian | 37 AD – 41 AD | C CAESAR | CAIUS CAESAR (often with additional titles) |
| Claudius | Julio-Claudian | 41 AD – 54 AD | TI CLAVD CAES | TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS CAESAR |
| Nero | Julio-Claudian | 54 AD – 68 AD | NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR | NERO CLAUDIUS CAESAR (often with additional titles) |
| Galba | Year of the Four Emperors | 68 AD – 69 AD | SER GALBA | SERVIUS GALBA (often with additional titles) |
| Otho | Year of the Four Emperors | 69 AD | M OTHO CAESAR | MARCUS OTHO CAESAR |
| Vitellius | Year of the Four Emperors | 69 AD | A VITELLIUS | AULUS VITELLIUS (often with additional titles) |
| Vespasian | Flavian | 69 AD – 79 AD | CAES VESPT | CAESAR VESPASIANUS |
| Titus | Flavian | 79 AD – 81 AD | T CAES | TITUS CAESAR (often with additional titles) |
| Domitian | Flavian | 81 AD – 96 AD | CAES DOMIT | CAESAR DOMITIANUS |
| Nerva | Nerva-Antonine | 96 AD – 98 AD | NERVA CAES | NERVA CAESAR (often with additional titles) |
| Trajan | Nerva-Antonine | 98 AD – 117 AD | NER TRAIAN | NERVA TRAIANUS |
| Hadrian | Nerva-Antonine | 117 AD – 138 AD | TRAIANVS HADRIANUS | (full legend varies) |
| Antoninus Pius | Nerva-Antonine | 138 AD – 161 AD | ANTONINVS PIVS | TITUS AELIUS HADRIANUS ANTONINUS PIUS AUGUSTUS |
| Marcus Aurelius | Nerva-Antonine | 161 AD – 180 AD (co-emperor with Lucius Verus 161-169 AD) | AVRELIVS CAES | MARCUS AURELIUS CAESAR (often with additional titles) |
| Commodus | Nerva-Antonine | 180 AD – 192 AD | L AVREL COMMOD | LUCIUS AURELIUS COMMODUS (often with additional titles) |
| Pertinax | 193 AD | P HELV PERTIN | PUBLIUS HELVIUS PERTINAX | |
| Didius Julianus | 193 AD | DID IVLIAN | DIDIUS JULIANUS | |
| Septimius Severus | Severan | 193 AD – 211 AD | L SEPT SEV | LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS |
| Geta | Severan | 209 AD – 211 AD (co-emperor with Septimius Severus) | P SEPT GETA | PUBLIUS SEPTIMIUS GETA |
| Caracalla | Severan | 211 AD – 217 AD | M AVR ANTONINVS | MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (often with additional titles) |
| Elagabalus | Severan | 218 AD – 222 AD | M AVR ANTONINVS | MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (often with additional titles) |
| Severus Alexander | Severan | 222 AD – 235 AD | ALEXANDER PIVS | ALEXANDER PIUS (often with additional titles) |
| Maximinus Thrax | 235 AD – 238 AD | MAXIMINVS PIVS | MAXIMINUS PIUS (often with additional titles) |
Appendix 5 – Full Abbreviations and Words on Roman Coins
A
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| A A A F F | Viri Auro Argento Aere Flando Feriundo | Republic | “The Men for Striking and Casting gold, silver, and bronze” – Refers to officials responsible for coinage production. |
| ABVNDANTIA | The personification of abundance. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: cornucopia, grain stalks. |
| ADSERTOR LIBERTAS | Restorer of Liberty. | Often used by emperors after restoring order or quelling rebellions. | |
| ADLOCVTO | A speech made by the emperor to his army. | 1st-3rd centuries AD | Commemorates a significant military address. |
| ADVENTVS, ADVENT | Arrival. | Often used to celebrate the emperor’s return from a campaign. | |
| ADVENTVI AVG FELICISSIMO | Felicitations of the Roman people upon the return of the emperor. | 1st-3rd c. AD | |
| AEDIS, AED | Temple or shrine. | Throughout Empire | |
| AEGYPTOS | The personification of Egypt. | ||
| AEQVITAS, AEQVIT | The personification of equity. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: cornucopia, balance-scales, scepter. |
| AETERNAE, AETERNITAS, AETERN | The personification of stability. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: globe, phoenix, torch, scepter; sometimes depicted holding the heads of the sun and moon. |
| AETERNAE MEMORIAE | Eternal remembrance. | Often used for deceased emperors or members of the imperial family. | |
| AFRICA | The personification of North African provinces. | Throughout Empire | (modern day Libya and Tunisia) |
| ALAMANNIA | The personification of the Germanic tribe, the Alans. | 3rd c. AD | |
| AMOR | Love. | Less frequent | |
| ANCILE | One of twelve sacred shields which fell from heaven. | Republic | |
| ANNONA | The goddess of the wheat harvest, and the deity over-seeing the grain imports from Africa. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: grain stalks, prow, modius, cornucopia. |
| ANNONA AVGVSTI | Provisions from the emperor. | 1st-3rd c. AD | Highlighting the emperor’s role in food security. |
| ANNONA AVGVSTI CERES | Provisions from the Majestic Ceres, the Hellenistic goddess of grain. | 1st-3rd c. AD | Combining Roman and Greek traditions. |
| APOLLO, APOL, APOLLONI | The Hellenistic sun god; also patron of the arts and prophecy. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: long hair, naked, lyre, bow and arrow. (APOLLONI SANCTO, Holy Apollo.) |
| AR AD | Arabia Adiabenus (a region corresponding to modern northwest Iraq) | 1st-2nd c. AD | |
| ARMENIA | A country north of Persia (modern-day Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northwestern Iran). | 1st-3rd c. AD | |
| ASIA | The personification of the province of Asia, or modern Turkey. | Throughout Empire | |
| AVG, AVGG, AVGGG; AVGVSTI, AVGVSTO or AVGVSTVS | The title “Augustus”, usually abbreviated, is often found on reverse legends when referring to an attribute of an emperor. | Throughout Empire | An emperor’s titular honor is AVGVSTVS (nominative, masculine); or AVGVSTA (feminine). |
B
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| BEATA TRANQVILLITAS, BEATA TRANQLITAS | Blessed calm. | 4th c. AD | Refers to the stability under the rule of Constantine I. |
| BIGA | Chariot with two beasts. | Throughout Empire | |
| BONI, BONVS, BONA, BONO | Good, noble, kind, honest. | Throughout Empire | Used in various contexts to denote positive qualities. |
| BONO GENIO PII IMPERATORIS | The good genius of the pious emperor. | 2nd-4th c. AD | An expression of good fortune for the emperor. |
| BONVS EVENTVS | An Italic god of agriculture, and later used as a personification of good news. | 1st-3rd c. AD | Depicted pouring libations from a patera over an altar, and holding a cornucopia. |
| BRITANNIA | The personification of the British province. | 1st-3rd c. AD | Depicted as a female sitting on a rock, holding a spear and resting arm on shield. Antoninus Pius issued a series of bronze sestertius coins specifically for circulation in Britain. |
C
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| CADUCEUS | A winged staff entwined with snakes. | Throughout Empire | Served as a symbol for safety, speed, and was associated with a herald. |
| CAELESTIS | Celestial, or from the heavens. Divinity. | Throughout Empire | |
| CAES, CAESAR | This was the gens name of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and later adopted as the title for heir-apparent to the Imperial rank. Then under the tetrarchy, this title was designated to a junior emperor. Some adopted this title to gain prestige and legitimacy (Otho). If there were two or more caesars at one time then the legend would reflect this by adding another “S” for each additional caesar. (CAESS would indicate two caesars). | 1st-4th c. AD | |
| CALRITAS REIPVB | Brightness of the Republic. | Republic | A slogan emphasizing the well-being of the Republic. |
| CALVMNIA | False accusation or claim. | Throughout Empire | |
| CAPPADOCIA | The personification of Cappadocia, in central Asia Minor. | 1st-3rd c. AD | |
| CAPTA | Conquered. | 1st-2nd c. AD | Used by emperors to commemorate territorial conquests. The coin might depict the conquered province personified or a military trophy. The legend would often include the name of the province with the feminine verb of “capio” (to seize) (e.g. AEGYPTO CAPTA, DACIA CAPTA, etc.). |
| CARITAS | Affection or liking to. | Throughout Empire | |
| CARITAS MVLTA AVGG | Great relations and affection by two emperors (AVGG = two, AVGGG = three). | 2nd-3rd c. AD | An exception to this was the relationship between Pupienus and his co-emperor Balbinus, who did not get along well. |
| CARTHAGE | The personification of Carthage. | ||
| CASTRORVM | Military fort or camp. | Throughout Empire | |
| CENS, CENSOR | A temporary official duty which entailed a commission to determine the composition of the Senate. Eligibility requirements included wealth, property, and moral character. With this, the emperor could influence the Senate to his advantage. | Republic and Early Empire | |
| CERERI FRUGIF | The fruit bearing Ceres. | Throughout Empire | An epithet for Ceres, the goddess of grain, emphasizing her role in agriculture. |
| CERES | The Hellenistic goddess of grain (Demeter). | Throughout Empire | Depicted on bronze/brass coins to suggest a plentiful food supply to the masses. Attributes: holds grain, torch, and veiled head. |
| CIPPUS | A stone pillar, engraved with Imperial and Senatorial proclamations, set in public places or beside roads. | Throughout Empire | |
| CIVITATIBVS ASIAE RESTITVT | Citizen rights/Citizenship Restored in Asia Minor. | 1st-2nd c. AD | |
| CLEMENTIA, CLEM | The personification of clemency or mercy. | 1st-2nd c. AD | In the first and second centuries, most types were sponsored by the Senate and may refer to the emperors pardoning of a distinguished Senator accused of sedition or treason. Attributes: olive branch. |
| COLLEGIA SACERDOTVM | The college of priests that governed the observance of state religion. | Throughout Empire | If an emperor or Caesar wasn’t elected Pontifex Maximus, they were co-opted into this college. Coins may depict priestly instruments. |
| COLONIA BOSTRA | Colony of Bostra (Arabia). | Throughout Empire | Bostra was a major trading center. |
| COMDITOR | The Founder. | Throughout Empire | Often used with a specific name, like “ROMVLO CONDITORI” (Founder Romulus). |
| COMES AVG | Companion of an emperor. | Throughout Empire | Usually refers to the deity depicted on the reverse of the coin. |
| COMITI AVGG NN | Retinue of emperors. | Throughout Empire | “NN” stands for “Noster” (plural), meaning “Our emperors” or “The emperors”. |
| CONCORDIA AEQUIT | Concord of Equity. | Throughout Empire | |
| CONCORDIA | The personification of unity and agreement. | Throughout Empire | Often used in troubled times to promote public unity behind the emperor. Attributes: cornucopia, patera, scepter. |
| CONCORDIA EXERCITVS, CONCORDIA MILITVM | Unity of the Army or Militia. | Throughout Empire | The personification of Concordia holding military symbols like standards or a scepter. |
| CONGIARIUM | Donatives of food or money made to the people of Rome. | 1st-2nd c. AD | Depicted with the emperor seated on a platform distributing coins. |
| CONIVGALIBVS | Marriage. | Throughout Empire | Often used as “DIS CONIVGALIBVS” – to the deities of marriage. |
| CONSECRATIO | Apotheosis (deification after death). | 1st-2nd c. AD | After death, popular emperors or family members were deified. Coins might show a cult item or temple dedicated to them. |
| CONSENSVS | Consensus. | Throughout Empire |
| CONSER VRBS SVAE | Protector of the city’s customs and traditions; Conservator of Rome. | Throughout Empire | |
| CONSERVAT AVG, CONSERVATOR AVG | Protector of the emperor. | Throughout Empire | Usually refers to Sol (Sun god), Mars (god of war), or Jupiter (king of the gods). |
| CONSTANTIA | The personification of steadiness. | Throughout Empire | If depicted in armor, represents courage and firmness. |
| CONSTANTINOPOLIS | The personification of the city Constantinople/Byzantium (Modern day Istanbul). | 4th c. AD | The capital under Constantine and the Eastern Roman Empire. |
| CONSTITVTO | To set up an agreed price. | Throughout Empire | |
| CORNUCOPIA | The horn of plenty. A symbol of prosperity and fortune. | Throughout Empire | |
| CORONA CIVICA | The Wreath of Civic Service. | Throughout Empire | Awarded by the Senate for saving the life of a Roman citizen. Emperors often received this upon accession. |
| COS | Consul. | Republic and Early Empire | The chief executive officer under the Republic. Two consuls were elected to serve one year terms. Emperors eventually usurped this power. The Roman numerals after COS indicate the number of times an emperor held the office. |
| CURULE CHAIR | A short bench symbolizing official rank. | Throughout Empire | Reserved for consuls, praetors, and the imperial family. |
| CV L | Clupeus Virtutis (Shield of Virtue). | 1st c. AD | A golden shield awarded to Augustus for his virtues. Similar shields were awarded to some later emperors. Depicted as CL V or SPQR held by Roma or Victory. |
| CVSTOS | The Guardian | Throughout Empire | A general term for a protector or guardian deity. |
| CYBELE | The mother of the gods, Mother Earth (also known as Magna Mater). | Throughout Empire | Attributes: turreted and veiled head, lions; often riding a lion-drawn cart. Titles: MAGNA MATER, MATER DEI |
D
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| DACIA | The province of Dacia (modern Romania and Bulgaria). | 1st-3rd c. AD | Conquered by Emperor Trajan. |
| DEA CAELESTIS | The patron deity of the city of Carthage. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: lion, thunderbolt, scepter, usually riding a lion. |
| DECVRSIO | To laugh at or ridicule. | Less frequent | Uncommon inscription, possibly satirical. |
| DEDICATIO | Dedication to/of. | Throughout Empire | Often used with additional details, like “DEDICATIO AEDIS” (dedication of a temple). |
| DE IVDAEIS | “With regard to Judaea”. | 1st c. AD | Possibly referring to the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. |
| DEO VVLCANO | “The god Vulcan”. | Throughout Empire | Roman god of fire, metalworking, and volcanoes. |
| DESTINATO | Determined to be assigned. | Less frequent | Uncommon inscription, purpose unclear. |
| DEVICTA | Conquered. | Throughout Empire | Often used to celebrate a military victory. |
| DIANA, DIANA LVCIFERA | The Roman goddess of the hunt, the moon, and wilderness (Artemis). | Throughout Empire | Attributes: crescent moon, torch, bow and arrow, hunting dog, stag. Titles: LUCIFERA (light-bringer), CONSERVATRIX (protector), VICTRIX (victorious). |
| DIS GENITALIBVS | For having children. | Throughout Empire | An offering to deities associated with childbirth. |
| DISCIPLINA | Educated instruction or disciplined training. | Throughout Empire | Refers to an emperor’s focus on an educated or well-trained army. |
| DIVI F, DIVI FILIUS, DIVVS, DIVO, DIVA, DIVI | Titles related to deified emperors. | Throughout Empire | “Divus” means god; used for a deceased emperor or family member. “Divus” and “Diva” are masculine and feminine nominative forms, respectively. Often on the deceased emperor’s coin legend. “Divi” (genitive) appears if the coin issuer is the son of a deified emperor. |
| DOMINOR NOSTROR CAESS | Caesars our lords. | Throughout Empire | Abbreviation for “Dominorum Nostrorum Caesarum” – Our Lords the Caesars. |
E
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| EQVESTER ORDO PRINCIPI IVVENT | Equestrian Order (to the) Prince of Youth (see Princeps Iuventutis). | Throughout Empire | Refers to the title “Princeps Iuventutis” (Leader of the Youth) sometimes bestowed upon an heir apparent. |
| EQVITVM, EQVIT | Of the cavalry. | Republic and Early Empire | In the Republic, the cavalry was made up of the wealthy equestrian order who could afford horses and armor. |
| EVENTVS | Incident or occurrence. | Throughout Empire | |
| EXERCITVS | The Army and the Infantry. | Throughout Empire | A common theme on the reverse of coins during the rule of military dictators in the 4th century AD. |
| EXPED | Refers to an emperor’s visit to an area or province. | Throughout Empire | |
| EX S C | Ex Senato Consulto, or by Senatorial Decree. | Throughout Empire | Often used to indicate an honor bestowed upon the emperor by the Senate. |
| EX S C OB CIVES SERVATOS | A decree of the Senate bestowed for having saved the lives of citizens. | Throughout Empire | “Ex Senato Consulto Ob Cives Servatos” translates to “By decree of the Senate for saving the lives of citizens”. |
F
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| FECVNDITAS | The personification of fertility. Associated with bearing Imperial heirs. | Throughout Empire | Often depicted with children. (FECVND AVGUSTAE – Fertility of the empress.) |
| FEL TEMP REPARATIO | The restoration of happy times. | Late Constantinian dynasty | A major theme on reformed coinage. Reverse types include the phoenix, a barbarian rescuing a captive, or a Roman soldier defeating a horseman. |
| FELICITAS, FEL, FELIC, FELICISSIMO | The personification of happiness and success. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: caduceus, scepter, sometimes leaning on a column. |
| FELIX | Lucky, fortunate, wise. Also used as a title for Venus. (FELIX ADVENT AVGG N N – Happy arrival of both our emperors.) | Throughout Empire | |
| FIDEI PVBLICAE | The faithfulness of the officials. | Throughout Empire | |
| FIDES | The personification of faithful protection or fulfillment of duties. | Throughout Empire | |
| FIDES PVBLICA | The promise of public protection. | Throughout Empire | |
| FIDES EXERCITVS, FIDES MILITVM | Faithfulness of the Army or Militia. | Throughout Empire | The personification of Fides is depicted holding military symbols like standards or a scepter. |
| FISCI | Money-bag, purse. | Throughout Empire | |
| FISCI IVDAICI CALVMNIA SVBLATA | Refers to the remission of tax imposed on the Jews by Nerva to fund the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. | 1st c. AD | |
| FOLLIS | A leather bag used to hold money. | Throughout Empire | |
| FORT RED | Fortunate return of our emperor. | Throughout Empire | Abbreviation of “Fortuna Redux”. |
| FORTI FORTVNAE | A dedication to the brave man of Fortune. | Less frequent | Uncommon inscription. |
| FORTVNA | The personification of luck and fate. | Throughout Empire | Emperors used Fortuna to imply they served as intermediaries between fate and the Empire. Attributes: cornucopia, olive branch, patera, rudder, or wheel. |
| FORTVNA REDUX, FORT RED | Fortuna, who leads one back. | Throughout Empire | Commemorates vows made before a journey and the emperor’s safe return. |
| FRVGIFERO, FRVGIFE, FRVGIFER, FRVGIS, FRVG | Fruitfulness or fertile. | Throughout Empire | |
| FRVMENTO | Grain, crops. | Throughout Empire | |
| FVNDATOR | The Founder. | Throughout Empire |
G
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| GALLIA | The personification of the Gallic provinces (Gaul, France, Switzerland, Northern Italy). | Throughout Empire | |
| GAVDIVM POPVLI ROMANI | Delight of the Roman Public. | Throughout Empire | |
| GENETRICI, GENETRIX | Mother, or ancestress. (VENERI GENETRICI = Mother Venus). | Throughout Empire | |
| GENIO ANTIOCHENI | A dedication to the Genius of Antioch. | Throughout Empire | “Genius” refers to a protective spirit. |
| GENIO AVGVSTI | A dedication to the Genius of the emperors. | Throughout Empire | Refers to the guardian spirit of the emperor and his family. |
| GENIO POP ROMANI | A dedication to the Genius of the Roman Public. | Throughout Empire | Commemorates the spirit of Rome and the Roman people’s character. |
| GENIO SENATVS | A dedication to the Genius of the Senate. | Throughout Empire | “Genius” refers to a protective spirit. |
| GENITALIBVS | Birth, of creation. | Throughout Empire | |
| GENIVS, GEN | The personification of the guardian spirit. | Throughout Empire | Every Roman man was believed to have a “genius” watching over him. |
| GERMANIA | The personification of Germany. | Throughout Empire | |
| GLORIA EXERCITVS | Glory of the Army. | Throughout Empire | Common theme on reverse sides of coins. |
| GLORIA NOVI SAECVLI | The glory of the new age. | Throughout Empire | |
| GLORIA ROMANORVM | Glory of the Romans. | Throughout Empire |
H
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| HERCVLES, HERCVLI, HERCVL | A great Greek hero, credited with spreading civilization, later deified. | Throughout Empire | Popular with emperors like Trajan, Commodus, and Postumus. |
| HILARITAS, HILAR | The personification of cheerfulness and joy. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: palm branch, cornucopia, scepter, patera. |
| HISPANIA | The personification of the Spanish Provinces. | Throughout Empire | |
| HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS | Under this sign you will be victorious. | 4th c. AD | Refers to Constantine’s dream of a victory under the sign of the cross. |
| HONOS, HONORI | The personification of Honor. (HONOS ET VIRTUS, Honor and Virtue.) | Throughout Empire |
I
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| III VIR A A A F F | Tres Viri Auro Argento Aere Flando Feriundo (The Three Men for Striking and Casting Gold, Silver and Bronze). | Republic and Early Empire | Refers to the board overseeing coin production. |
| IMP, IMPERI, IMPERAT, IMPERATOR | The Emperor or supreme military commander. | Throughout Empire | Originally a title for victorious generals. Became an official rank under emperors. |
| INDVLGENTIA | The personification of tenderness, granting leniency or concession. | Throughout Empire | Minor deity for some Romans. (INDVLGENTIA AVGG IN CARTH – Emperor’s indulgence to Carthage.) |
| INVICTA | Unconquered, usually referring to a city or goddess. | Throughout Empire | |
| INVICTVS, INVICTO, INVICTA | Invincible, unconquerable (see Sol). | Throughout Empire | |
| I O M | Abbreviation of IOVI OPTIME MAXIME (Jupiter, the Best and Greatest). | Throughout Empire | |
| IOVI | The dative form of Jupiter, used in dedications. (IOVI CVSTOS – To Jupiter, the Protector) | Throughout Empire | |
| IOVI CONSERVATOR AVG(G) NN | Jupiter, conservator (protector) of our emperor (or emperors). | Throughout Empire | |
| IOVI EXSVP | Jupiter who excels in all things. | Throughout Empire | |
| IOVI PROPVGNATORI | Jupiter the defender. | Throughout Empire | |
| IOVI STATORI | Jupiter the stabilizer. | Throughout Empire | |
| IOVI VOT SVSC PRO SAL CAES AVG SPQR | Vows to Jupiter by the senate and the Roman people for the restoration of the emperor’s health. | Throughout Empire |
| ISIS | An Egyptian goddess of the underworld and wife of Osiris, representing the cycle of life and death. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: rattle (sistrum), bucket. |
| ITALIA, ITALIAM, ITALICA | The personification of Italy. | Throughout Empire | Usually depicted as a female figure on a globe, holding a cornucopia and scepter. |
| IVDAEA | The personification of Judea. | Throughout Empire | |
| IVDAEA DEVICTA | Judea conquered. | 1st c. AD | Likely referring to the Roman conquest of Judea. |
| IVN, IVVENI, IVVENTIS | Junior, young. | Throughout Empire | |
| IVNO, IVNONIS, IVNONI, IVNONEM | Juno (Hera), the consort of Jupiter and the patroness of childbirth. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: peacock, scepter, patera. Titles: CONSERVATRIX (protector), LVCINA (light), REGINA (queen). |
| IVNO FELIX | Happy Juno. | Throughout Empire | |
| IVNO LVCINA | Goddess of light. | Throughout Empire | |
| IVNO REGINA | Juno the Queen. | Throughout Empire | |
| IVNONI MARTIALI | The warlike Juno. | Throughout Empire | |
| IVPPITER, IOVIS | Jupiter (Zeus), the king of the gods and god of the sky. Jovis is the genitive form. | Throughout Empire | Often depicted as the protector of the state and the emperor (IOVI CVSTOS). Attributes: thunderbolt, scepter, eagle, Victory statuette, globe; usually depicted naked or with a cloak. Titles: CVSTOS (protector), CONSERVATOR (preserver), PROPVGNATOR (defender), TONANS (thunderer), VICTOR (victorious). |
| IVSTITA | The personification of justice. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: olive branch, patera, scepter. |
J
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| JANUS | The Italic deity of time, beginnings, transitions, doorways, and passages. | Throughout Empire | More common on Republican coins, rare on Imperial coins. |
| Temple of Janus | A reference to the Temple of Janus in the Roman Forum. | Throughout Empire | The inscription itself wouldn’t appear on coins, but the imagery of the temple doors being closed could symbolize peace. |
L
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| LABARUM | A military standard with the Chi-Rho monogram (a Christian symbol). | 4th c. AD onward | |
| LAETITIA | The personification of joy and good grace. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: wreath, rudder steering globe, anchor. |
| LEG | Legion. (LEG I, LEG II, LEG III – The number of the legion). | Throughout Empire | |
| LIBER | The Hellenistic god of wine (Bacchus/Dionysios). | Throughout Empire | Attributes: wine cup, thyrsos (a staff with grape leaves), crown of ivy leaves, panther. |
| LIBERALITAS, LIBERAL | The personification of generosity, often referring to an imperial gift to the people. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: tessera (a token), cornucopia (horn of plenty), or coins flowing from a cornucopia. |
| LIBERTAS, LIB | The personification of liberty. | Throughout Empire | Often used by usurpers claiming to restore the Republic. Attributes: pileus (pointed hat), scepter. |
| LVDOS | Games. Sports or entertainment. | Throughout Empire | |
| LVNA | An alternative manifestation of the moon goddess, used by Julia Domna and Gallienus; more appropriately a personification of the moon. | 2nd-3rd c. AD |
M
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| MAGNAE | Great, powerful, extensive. | Throughout Empire | |
| MAG PIVS | Great and pious. | Throughout Empire | |
| MARS, MARTIS | The god of war, spring, and regeneration. | Throughout Empire | Mars (masculine), Martis (genitive). |
| MART PAC, MATI PACIF or PACIFERO | Mars, the pacifier. (MARTIA CONSERVATORI – Mars, the conserver. MARTI PROPVGT – Mars, the defender.) | Throughout Empire | |
| MARSUPPIUM | A bag or pouch to carry valuables or official documents. | Throughout Empire | |
| MATER MAGNA | See Cybele (Great Mother goddess) | Throughout Empire | |
| MATRI | Mother, matron. (MATRI MAGNAE – Mother of great power) | Throughout Empire | |
| MAVRETANIA | The personification of Mauretania (modern Morocco and Algeria). | Throughout Empire | |
| MERCVRY | The Hellenistic messenger god (Hermes). | Throughout Empire | Attributes: caduceus, petasos (winged cap), marsuppium. |
| MILITVM, MILIT, MIL | Foot soldier, military. | Throughout Empire | |
| MINERVA | The Roman version of the Hellenistic Pallas Athene, goddess of wisdom and warfare. | Throughout Empire | Common on Domitian coinage. Attributes: spear, shield, helmet, aegis, Victory statuette, prow. Title: Victrix (victorious). |
| MODIUS | A measuring device used for grain. | Throughout Empire | Symbolizes an abundance of food. |
| MONETA | A reflection of Juno as the patroness of money and the mother of muses. | Throughout Empire | |
| MVLIEBRI | Feminine, womanly. (FORTVNAE MVLIEBRI = feminine Fortuna) | Throughout Empire | |
| MVNIFICENTIA | Generosity. | Throughout Empire | |
| MVTVVS, MVTVA | Mutual, or agreed upon. | Throughout Empire |
N
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| NAVALIS | Of ships. (VICTORIA NAVALIS – Victory of ships). | Throughout Empire | |
| NEMESIS | An avenging spirit or punisher of evil. | Throughout Empire | Often associated with suppressing rebellions. Attributes: caduceus, snake, wheel. |
| NEPTVNE | The Hellenistic god of the sea (Poseidon). | Throughout Empire | Attributes: dolphin, trident, figurehead of prow, prow. |
| NEPTUNE REDUX, NEP RED | Neptune, who leads one back from the sea. | Throughout Empire | Commemorates safe sea journeys. Attributes: trident, acrostolium (ship’s ornament). |
| NILVS | Refers to the Nile River. | Throughout Empire | The Nile is depicted as a male figure, reclining, holding a cornucopia and reeds. May also include a crocodile and/or hippopotamus. |
| NOBILITAS | The personification of aristocracy. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: palladium (statuette of Athena), scepter. |
| NOST, NOSTRORVM | Of our people. (i.e. CAESARVM NOSTRORVM – The heir apparent of our people) | Throughout Empire |
O
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| OB CIVES SERVATOS, OB C S | In return for civic service. Refers to the award of the Civic Crown (Corona Civica). | Throughout Empire | |
| OBSEQVENS | Yield to with compliance. (FORTVNA OBSEQVENS = Compliant Fortune). | Throughout Empire | |
| OPI | The personification of power, might, and influence. | Throughout Empire | Usually depicted as a woman holding a scepter and her head resting on her hand. |
| OPS | The ancient Italic goddess of abundance and wealth. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: grain stalks, scepter. |
| OPTIMO | Good, honest, brave, noble. | Throughout Empire | |
| OPTIMO PRINCIPI | The honest, brave, and noble leader. | Throughout Empire | |
| ORIENS AVG | Oriens Augusti (The Rising Sun of the Emperor). Refers to Sol (Sun god) and rising fortune for the emperor and the Empire. | Throughout Empire |
P
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| PACATOR ORBIS | Pacifier of the world. | Throughout Empire | |
| PACE PR UBIQ PARTA IANUM CLUSIT | The doors of Janus are closed throughout the world, there is peace. | Throughout Empire | Refers to the closing of the Temple of Janus in Rome, symbolizing peace. “UBIQ” means “everywhere” |
| PACE PR TERRA MARIQ PARTA IANVM CLVSIT | Peace by land and sea having been established, he closed Janus. | Throughout Empire | Similar to PACE PR UBIQ PARTA IANUM CLUSIT, but specifies peace on land and sea. |
| PACI AVGUSTAE | The peace of the emperor (an emperor’s personal vision of “Imperial Stability”). | Throughout Empire | |
| PACIFER | Peace maker. | Throughout Empire | |
| PALLADIUM | The cult image of Minerva (Pallas Athene). | Throughout Empire | |
| PANNONIAE | The personification of the province Pannonia (modern-day Yugoslavia area). | Throughout Empire | Usually depicted as two women. |
| PARAZONIUM | A short sword in its sheath. | Throughout Empire | |
| PARTHICO | Refers to the Parthians (a country south of the Caspian Sea). | Throughout Empire | |
| PATERA | A bowl used for pouring libations. | Throughout Empire | A ritual offering. |
| PATER PATRIAE, P P | The father of the country. | Throughout Empire | An honorary title for emperors, signifying leadership and responsibility. |
| PATIENTIA | The personification of patience, endurance, suffering. | Throughout Empire | |
| PAX | The personification of peace. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: olive branch, scepter, cornucopia, caduceus. |
| PAX FVNDATA CVM PERSIS | Firm peace with the Persians. | Throughout Empire | |
| PAX ORBIS TERRARVM | Peace of the entire world. | Throughout Empire | A grand ideal of universal peace. |
| PERP, PERPETVITAS, PERPETVAE, PERPETVVS | Perpetuity, perpetual. May refer to the life of an emperor (PERP AVG). | Throughout Empire | Refers to something lasting forever. |
| PIETAS, PIETATI, PIET | The personification of devotion to the gods, one’s duties, and the emperor. | Throughout Empire | Usually depicted as veiled, sacrificing from a patera over an altar. |
| PIETAS MVTVA AVG | The mutual piety of the two Augusti (emperors). | Throughout Empire | |
| PILEUS | The conical cap associated with liberty. | Throughout Empire | |
| PIO | Appease, or propitiate (the gods). | Throughout Empire | |
| PLEBEI | Common people, or lower class. | Throughout Empire | |
| PLEBEI VRBANAE FRVMENTO CONSTITVTO | A free dole of grain given to each citizen of Rome in 97 AD under Nerva. | 1st c. AD | |
| PONTIF MAXIM | Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest). | Throughout Empire | The head of the Roman state religion. Often held by emperors. |
| POPVL IVSSV | By order of the Roman people. | Throughout Empire | |
| POTESTATEM | The ability to rule with power and force. | Throughout Empire | |
| PRAETOR, PRAE | Leader, or in front of. | Throughout Empire | |
| PRAETORIANORVM | Of the Praetorian Guard (elite bodyguard of the emperor). | Throughout Empire | |
| PRINCEPS IVVENTUTIS, PRINC IVVENT | First among the young men. | Republic and Early Empire | Originally a Republican title, later used for the heir apparent. |
| PRINCEPS | Prince. | Late Empire | A title for the emperor. |
| PRINCIPI | Leader, or first man. | Throughout Empire | |
| PROFECTIO | Departure. Commemorates the emperor’s departure. | Throughout Empire | |
| PROPAGO | Posterity or propagate. | Throughout Empire | Refers to lineage or descendants. |
| PROPVGNATOR, PROPVGNATORI | The Defender. | Throughout Empire | |
| PROV DEOR, PROVID DEOR, PROVIDENTIA DEORVM | Foresight of the gods. | Throughout Empire | |
| PROVIDENTIA, PROVID, PROVI, PRO | The personification of foresight. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: baton, globe. |
| PVBLICA, PVBLICAE, PVB | Belonging to the people. Also can indicate a state official. | Throughout Empire | |
| PVDICITIA | The personification of modest virtue, or chastity. | Throughout Empire | Frequently used on coins of empresses. |
Q
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| QVADRAGENS REMISSA S C | Remission of the fortieth (customs duty) by decree of the Senate (Senatus Consultum). | 1st c. AD | Refers to a tax cut in Gaul and Hispania under Nero. |
| QVADRIGA | A chariot drawn by four beasts. | Throughout Empire | |
| QVIES | The personification of retirement and rest. | Throughout Empire | Depicted standing holding a branch and scepter. |
| QVIRITIVM | Citizens of Rome, collectively in their peacetime functions. | Throughout Empire |
R
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| RAVENNA | The personification of Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Honorius onward. | 5th c. AD onward | |
| RECTOR ORBIS | Restorer of the World. | 3rd c. AD | Common title for emperors like Probus and Aurelian. |
| REDACTAE | To drive back, or reduce. | Throughout Empire | |
| REDUX | Coming back, returning. | Throughout Empire | |
| REDVCI | Leading back, returning. | Throughout Empire | |
| REGI ARTIS | The Art of Leadership. | 3rd c. AD | Used by Claudius Gothicus. |
| REGINA | Queen. (IVNO REGINA = Queen Juno). | Throughout Empire | Title for goddesses. |
| REGNA ADSIGNATA | The Kingdoms Alloted. | Throughout Empire | |
| RELIG VETERA H S NOVIES MILL ABOLITA | Refers to Hadrian’s generosity in remitting debts (HS = Sestertius, a Roman coin). | 2nd c. AD | |
| REPARATIO REIPVB | Restoration of the Republic. | Throughout Empire | |
| REQVIES | Rest (from labor), Retire. | Throughout Empire | |
| RESTITVT SAECVIL | Restoration of the spirit age. | Throughout Empire | Meaning unclear. |
| RESTITVTAS ORBIS | Restoration of the World. | Throughout Empire | |
| RESTITVTOR EXERCIT | Restorer of the Army. | Throughout Empire | |
| RESTITVTOR AFRICAE | Restorer or ruler of Africa. | Throughout Empire | |
| RESTITVTOR ORBIS | Restorer or ruler of the world. | Throughout Empire | |
| RESTITVTOR VRBIS | Restorer or ruler of the city (Rome). | Throughout Empire | |
| RESVRGES | Resurgent (i.e. ROMA RESVRGES, resurgent Rome). | Throughout Empire | |
| ROM ET AVG | A cult of Roma and Augustus, mainly worshipped in the provinces. | 1st c. AD | |
| ROMA | The goddess of the city of Rome and the personification of Rome itself. | Throughout Empire | Depicted as wearing armor and holding a Victory statuette. |
| ROMAE AETERNAE, ROMAE AETERNITAS | (Dictated as) to Eternal Rome. | Throughout Empire | |
| ROMANORVM | Of the Romans (i.e. GAVDIVM ROMANORVM, Delight of the Romans). | Throughout Empire | |
| ROMA PERPETVA | Everlasting Rome. | Throughout Empire | |
| ROMA RENA, ROMA RENASCENS | Revived or renewed Rome. | Throughout Empire | |
| ROMVLO CONDITORI | “Romulus the founder”. | Throughout Empire |
S
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| SACERDOS | Priest (or priestess). | Throughout Empire | Refers to the coin issuer holding a priestly position. |
| SACRA | Sacrifice, or to make sacred. | Throughout Empire | Religious ceremony. |
| SAEC, SAECVLI, SAECVLO, SAECVLARES | The passing of a generation, celebrated with games and festivals. | Throughout Empire | Associated with specific emperors (Augustus, Claudius, etc.). |
| SAECVLARES | Refers to the Saecular Games. | Throughout Empire | Specific games involving animal sacrifices. |
| SAECVLI FELICITAS | The Era of Prosperity. | Throughout Empire | |
| SAECVLVM FRVGIFERVM | A personification of the fruitful age, or Golden Age. | Throughout Empire | |
| SALVATOR REIPVLICAE | Savior of the Republic. | Throughout Empire | Title claimed by emperors. |
| SALVS, SALVTARIS, SALVTI | The goddess of health and safety. | Throughout Empire | Often appears after overcoming threats or illness. Attributes: sacrificing to a snake. |
| SALVS GENERIS (GEN) HVMANI | Salvation to humankind. | Throughout Empire | Grandiose claim of emperor’s benefit to humanity. |
| SANTO | Holy or sacred. (APOLLONI SANCTO = Holy Apollo). | Throughout Empire | Title for deities. |
| SAPIENTIA PRINCIPIS | The Wisdom of our Prince. | Throughout Empire | Flattering title for the emperor. |
| SARMATIA | The personification of Sarmatia (modern Russia/Poland area). | 4th c. AD | |
| S C | Senatus Consulto (By Senatorial Decree). | Throughout Empire | Indicates approval by the Senate. |
| SECVRITAS | The personification of freedom from danger. | Throughout Empire | Issued after overcoming threats or invasions. |
| SEGENTIA | The Roman goddess of the ripening of wheat, or crops. | Throughout Empire |
| SELLESTERNIVM | A ritualistic feast held to honor the gods and seek their favor. | Throughout Empire | Usually issued after disasters or plagues. |
| SENATVS | The Senate. | Throughout Empire | Governing body of the Roman Republic and early Empire. |
| SERVATOS | Guard or protect. | Throughout Empire | |
| SICILIA | To be silent, or not speak about. | Throughout Empire | Meaning unclear in this context. |
| SIDERIBVS RECEPTA | “Received by the stars”. | Throughout Empire | Refers to Diana Lucifera guiding the dead to the afterlife. |
| SOL, SOL INVICTVS | The sun god (Sol Invictus). | Throughout Empire | Originally a sun deity, later a more general god. |
| SOLI INVICTO COMITI | (Dedicated as) to his companion (emperor), the unconquered Sol. | 3rd c. AD | Associated with the emperor, especially Aurelian. |
| SOSPITATORI | To defend or preserve. | Throughout Empire | Title for deities as protectors. |
| SPES | The personification of hope. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: flower, flowing robe. |
| SPES PVBLICA | Hope of the Public. | Throughout Empire | |
| SPES REPVBLICAE | Hope of the Republic. | Throughout Empire | |
| S P Q R | Senatus Populusque Romanus (The Senate and the People of Rome). | Throughout Empire | Standard inscription signifying Roman authority. |
| SVBLATA | To take away or remove. Steal. | Throughout Empire | Unclear meaning on coins, possibly referring to a rebellion. |
T
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| TELLVS STABIL | “The stable world”. | Throughout Empire | Refers to Tellus, the earth goddess, and stability. |
| TEMP, TEMPORVM | Of the Times (i.e. FELICITAS TEMPORVM, prosperity or happiness of the Times). | Throughout Empire | Refers to a specific period. |
| TEMPVLM, TEMPL | Temple. ( TEMPVLM DIV AVG REST = Temple for the Divine Augustus himself). | Throughout Empire | |
| TERRARVM | Of the World. | Throughout Empire | |
| TESSERA | A cubic tablet mounted on a handle. | Throughout Empire | Object used for identification. |
| TOGA, TOGATE | The Toga, a garment of Roman citizens. | Throughout Empire | Special designs for senators or consuls. On coins, emperor referencing consular rank. |
| TR P, TRI POT | Tribunicia Potestas (Tribunician Powers). | Throughout Empire | Refers to the emperor’s power granted by the people. |
| TRANQVILLITAS, TRANQ | The personification of tranquillity. | Throughout Empire | Attributes: rudder and grain ears. |
| TRES GALLIAE | The three regions of Gaul (Aquitania, Lugdunensis, Narbonensis). | Throughout Empire | |
| TRIVMFATOR GENTIVM BARB(arorum) | Triumphant over the barbarian tribes. | Throughout Empire | Title for victorious emperors. |
| TROPAEA | A Roman military trophy made from enemy equipment. | Throughout Empire | |
| TVTATORI | Guard, defend, or protect against. | Throughout Empire | Title for deities as protectors. |
V
| Inscription | Meaning | Date Range (if applicable) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| VBIQVE | Everywhere, anywhere. (VBIQVE PAX = peace everywhere) | Throughout Empire | |
| VENVS, VENERI, VENERIS | The goddess of love and beauty, Venus (Aphrodite). | Throughout Empire | Patron goddess of Julius Caesar and the Julian line. Attributes: apple, Victory statuette. Titles: CAELESTIS, FELIX, GENETRIX, VICTRIX. |
| VESTA | The goddess of the public hearth (Hestia). | Throughout Empire | Associated with the emperor’s role as protector of the state. Attributes: patera, scepter, simplum, palladium. Titles: MATER, SANCTA. |
| VICTOR | The victor (not the personification of Victory). | Throughout Empire | Usually refers to the agent of victory (e.g. MARS VICTOR). |
| VICTORIA | The goddess of Victory (Nike). | Throughout Empire | Often depicted with other deities (Roma, Jupiter, Venus). Attributes: wreath, wings. |
| VICTORIA OTHONIS | Victory of Otho. | 1st c. AD | Minted during Otho’s campaign against Vitellius. |
| VICTORIAE LAETE PRINC PERP | Joyful victories of the long-lived princes. | Throughout Empire | |
| VICTRIX | Conqueror. | Throughout Empire | Title for emperors or deities. |
| VIRTVS | The personification of manliness, courage, and virtue. | Throughout Empire | Frequently depicted in armor. |
| VIRTVS EXERCITVS | The virtue of the Army. | Throughout Empire | |
| VLTOR | The Avenger. | Throughout Empire | Title for deities. |
| VNDIQVE VICTORES | Victory on all fronts. | Throughout Empire | |
| VOLCANO, VVLCAN | The god of iron, fire, and weapons (Hephaestus). | Throughout Empire | Attributes: hammer, tongs, anvil. |
| VOTA, VOTIS, VOTVM | Vows (to the Gods). | Throughout Empire | Refers to vows made to gods for favors or wishes. |
| VOTA PVBLICA | Vows of the People. | Throughout Empire | Commemorates vows made by two emperors for a prosperous joint reign. |
| VRBANAE | Of the City (Urban). | Throughout Empire | |
| VRBS | A city. | Throughout Empire | |
| VRBS ROMA BEATA | Blessed city of Rome. | Throughout Empire |
Digital Maps of the Ancient World 